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The Bonding Brain

Primate sociality is linked to brain networks for pair bonds. Social conservatives are fond of linking morality with monogamy and will be quick to condemn the moral crimes of adulterous felatio while ignoring the moral crimes of cutting social programs for poor mothers. However, in a bizarre twist, research suggests that morality and monogamy are closely intertwined, though it's doubtful many conservatives will champion the reasons why. In the journal Science Robin Dunbar revisits the question with a unique perspective as to why some species (including humans) succeed so well as members of…

Exploring Oahu: Camping Kouli'ou'ou

The Kuli'ou'ou ridge trail is one of my favorites on Oahu. It's a 2.5 mile trek that ascends roughly 1700 ft to the top of the Ko'olau mountains which cut eastern Oahu in half. I've done this hike a number of times, and each time I'm amazed by the stunning views. So, of course, when we learned that camping permits were available for this ridge and its surrounding trail system, Barry and I simply couldn't resist. We decided to take it easy on ourselves the first night. I stepped on the trail with 30 lbs of gear strapped to my back, so I was in no hurry to the top. About 1/2 way up, there is a…

Partisan, yes. Hack, no.

Representative Dave Weldon (R-FL) recently issued a press release that has been getting a little bit of play at a couple of blogs on the political right. In the press release, Weldon accuses Democrats of taking money from NASA to fund other projects, including AIDS relief for Africa: "The raid on NASA's budget has begun in earnest. The cuts announced today by House Democrat leaders, if approved by Congress, would be nearly $400 million less than NASA's current budget," said Weldon. "Clearly, the new Democrat leadership in the House isn't interested in space exploration. Their omnibus proposal…

Nation Building versus Nation Rebuilding, part 3

Last week, I wrote two posts on the differences between nation building and nation rebuilding. Toward the end of the second, I said this: I think that a large portion of the problem here is not that we don't have the capability to do enough, but that we have not organized our capabilities in a way that would ease this type of process. As things currently stand, military-based nation building efforts are the worst way to provide comprehensive, broad-based improvements in war torn nations - except for pretty much all the others that have been tried. The military really does have some…

Obesity and discrimination

Nearly all prejudicial attitudes are now taboo in America. Sixty years ago, it might have been acceptable to deny someone a job or service in a business because of skin color or gender, but now such overt discrimination is almost universally condemned. Even people with disabilities are accommodated. Yet although obesity is on the rise in America, overweight people continue to face difficulty. They are rated lower on job performance evaluations even when the work they do is qualitatively the same as normal weight individuals. Why does such discrimination continue even as overt discrimination…

Part III: Defending "Framing Science" Premises 2-3

Okay, so: After reading over some ninety comments, I think I am ready to advance the framing science discussion further. Recall that I am starting from the ground up, because I believe that while I have made some errors and Nisbet has made some errors, and there has been some unfortunate polarization and nastiness on top of that, I still think that the concept of framing holds considerable import for the future of science communication. So I am now going to defend those premises that received considerable criticism in my previous post. I want to go in order, because I want to play this out…

TV Review: Becoming Human, Part 1

How our species appeared on this planet has traditionally been a touchy subject. For centuries different religions pushed their creation myths as the answer to the persistent question "How did we come to be here?", but as naturalists examined the world around them the less the "Book of Nature" fit with the classic stories. Now, through our understanding of evolution, we know that our species was not produced in some divine fiat but represents a lonely twig inextricably connected to all other life through our ancestry. Despite what we have come to learn about the origin of our species, however…

Cannabis Extract for Cancer?

Any time something related to a medical use for cannabis is found, it makes headlines.  Mostly, the interest is generated by the relationship to an illegal drug.  Sometimes, though, the media do a decent job of reporting the real issue. href="http://www.researchblogging.org/">Researchers at the California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute have announced that one of the compounds found in cannabis, cannabidiol, inhibits a gene that is important for the growth and metastasis of breast cancer.   Note that this has nothing to do with medical marijuana, really.  Cannabidiol is not…

Is your Boss a Psychopath?

Fast Company face="Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif"> has an amusing and interesting href="http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/96/open_boss.html">article on href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy">pychopathy.  Being a business-oriented magazine, they ask "Is your boss a psychopath?"  But one could just as easily apply the same principles to other important people in your life, such as politicians.  They even have a quiz useful for making armchair diagnoses. href="http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/96/open_boss-quiz.html">Quiz: Is Your Boss a Psychopath? [1] Is he…

Thoughts before voting in a May primary

Right, so I now live (most of the time) in Indiana. We're up next, along with North Carolina, in the presidential primary spotlight. I've been getting multiple mailings every day, we've got ads on TV, the cities are being visited by major players; while I'm new to Indiana and am coming from the battleground state of Wisconsin, this is apparently a new experience for most Hoosiers. So, as we progress through the last weekend before the primary on Tuesday, how am I thinking about who to vote for? Let me first make a disclaimer which otherwise should be obvious: I'm a Democrat. How do I…

Unauthorized Dam Builders Must Be Stopped!

This was forwarded to me in an email, and it is just too "dam" funny for me not to post. It is a letter that was sent to a man named Ryan DeVries by the Pennslyvania Department of Environmental Quality and his letter in response. Make sure you read the first letter first. SUBJECT: DEQ File No.97-59-0023; T11N; R10W, Sec. 20; Lycoming County Dear Mr. DeVries: It has come to the attention of the Department of Environmental Quality that there has been recent unauthorized activity on the above referenced parcel of property. You have been certified as the legal landowner and/or contractor who…

The "Illusion of Explanatory Depth": How Much Do We Know About What We Know?

There's nothing like having a curious child to make you aware of just how little you actually know about the world. Often (more often than I'd like to admit), my son (Darth Vader over there on the left) will ask me a question about how something works, or why something happens the way it does, and I'll begin to answer, initially confident in my knowledge, only to discover that I'm entirely clueless. I'm then embarrassed by my ignorance of my own ignorance. This is the illusion of explanatory depth, and it's more common than you or I probably want to admit. I'll get to reasons why it's common…

Framing the Great Atheist Schism

As Trinifar says, we're witnessing a great atheist schism. While there are actually several different types of atheists participating (I wonder if we're just playing into the hands of anti-atheist rhetoric by pretending we are, or should be, a homogenous group), the tendency is to classify the participants into one of two groups. I'm not really sure, at this point, what we should call these groups. Those on one side of the schism have been called Churchill school atheist, skeptical atheists, new atheists (new to what, I'm not sure), "meanie" atheists, and several less flattering names (anti-…

FDA Approves Tapentadol

Tapentadol is a drug for pain.  It was approved by the US FDA for the treatment of moderate to severe pain.  The href="http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2008/NEW01916.html">FDA news release was dated 24 November 2008, although the actual approval was a few days earlier. Tapentadol acts on μ-opioid receptors, making it similar to morphine and its ilk.  Do we need another opioid agonist?  And if so, why?  Suspicions deepen because it was produced by the same company that makes tramadol.  Indeed, it is similar to tramadol in many ways.  Tramadol is the active ingredient in Ultram®, now…

Mental Health Parity

This post is not about mental health parity.  Although it is a very important topic, there is no reason for me to write about it.  If you are interesting in the topic, just go read the (open access) Perspectives column in the current NEJM: href="http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/359/2/113">Shuffling toward Parity -- Bringing Mental Health Care under the Umbrella. The column is short enough that there would not be any point in trying to distill it any further.  But I do want to make a couple of points, including a mild-to-moderate quibble with one of the points mentioned:…

Friday Sprog Blogging: the rightful place of science.

By now, you're probably aware of the Rightful Place Project, which is collecting text, images, audio, and video from scientists, engineers, and others involved in conversations about science in response to the question, What is science's rightful place? I'm still thinking about my own response to this question. To help me think, I consulted with the Free-Ride offspring, and we recorded the audio of our conversation. If you don't feel like downloading the MP3, the transcript of our conversation is below. Dr. Free-Ride: So, you remember in January when President Obama was inaugurated? Younger…

I shall build it and I shall call it gregBook

Both my desktop and my laptop started working more slowly a few weeks ago. This indicated that something about the operating system (some version of Ubuntu Linux) changed in a bad way. Or, perhaps, since the slowness was mostly noticed in the web browser, the newer version of Firefox was somehow borked. It turns out that the latter is true to some extent because the developers of Firefox left Linux out in the cold with hardware acceleration (and despite the excuses for that I'm still annoyed ... had the same issues applied to, say Windows, they would not have left Windows out in the cold…

Encephalon #18

At last, it's time for Encephalon, the carnival of neuroscience. There were a lot of submissions, and I've tried to organize them into four categories: basic and cognitive neuroscience addresses the problem of understanding brains, more medically and psychiatrically inclined work tries to fix brains, a few crazy dreamers think about technological ways to improve brains, and some rare individuals wonder about how brains evolved. I should mention that brains are incredibly complex and all of these efforts are struggling against the immensity of the problems…but it's fun to try and to watch, and…

Making legal threats against a blogging cancer patient? Stay classy, Shayla McCallum and Dr. Thomas Lodi. Stay classy.

I've said it before, and I've said it more times than I can remember. Purveyors of unscientific medicine don't have the goods. If they had the goods, then their nostrums wouldn't be called "alternative" medicine anymore; they'd just be medicine. Because they don't have the goods in the form of science and clinical evidence, all that leaves is to attack those who criticize their lack of science and clinical evidence. Most recently, we saw this in the reaction of the British Chiropractic Association, which is suing Simon Singh over the most bogus of reasons, and in the grande dame of the anti-…

Would you die for your religion? part 2: What about the children?

It looks as though the Jehovah's Witnesses have claimed another life. This time, though, it wasn't an adult, as it was recently. This time, though, through the indoctrination inherent in the Jehovah's Witness religion and, incredibly and inexcusably, the acquiescence of our legal system to their irrational and dubious interpretation of a text written thousands of years before blood transfusion was ever contemplated, the life lost was that of an adolescent: A 14-year-old boy who refused blood transfusions in his fight against leukemia -- based on religious beliefs -- died Wednesday night in…

John Mashey: What to do about poor science reporting

John Mashey offered some good advice in a comment on my post on the War on Gore. I'm following Michael Tobis' example and boosting it from comments. Editorial and News Editorial and news really are often quite separate, with the Wall Street Journal as an extreme case. I get it for the numerous excellent articles and rarely look at the Op-ed section, except that every once in a while, they actually say something rational. I once discussed the separation with a Wall Street Journal reporter, who started by saying the Editorial gang were "evil neocon dinosaurs," then moved to less-unrepeatable…

More on Duffy

Some more responses to Michael Duffy's wrongheaded column. Gavin Schmidt's letter in yesterday's SMH: The opinion piece by Michael Duffy contains multiple errors of fact and plenty of errors of interpretation ("Truly inconvenient truths about climate change being ignored", November 8-9). ... Realclimate is not "alarmist". Posts frequently debunk overheated claims in the media as well as criticising disinformation efforts. Acknowledging that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that its concentration is rising rapidly due to human activities may be alarming, but it is not alarmist. Rajendra…

Book Review: In Which Sci Reads the Dictionary (Cambell's Psychiatric Dictionary, 9th Edition)

Originally posted by Scicurious On April 8, 2009, at 12:02 AM As I'm sure everyone knows by now, Sci LOVES getting books in the mail. Even if I paid for them, I still love seeing them show up in a box. Even better is when I pick them out of a store and get to cuddle them on the way home. So you can imagine how happy Sci was to see this show up at the door: I've always wanted a specialized psychiatric dictionary, almost as bad as I've wanted a specialized pharmacologic dictionary. It's a good thing to have handy, and is an even cooler thing to get in the mail. So Sci pranced around…

Kleck's DGU numbers

J. Neil Schulman writes: When a dozen surveys which are specifically attempting to quantify DGU's finds DGU's an order of magnitude larger than the NCVS, then you have your answer. None of those surveys other than Kleck's were designed to quantify DGU's and they all have problems when used for that purpose. See Kleck's paper. And even if those surveys were designed like Kleck's, what you have then is just a larger sample size, still much smaller than the NCVS. since (a) the NCVS wasn't properly designed to get an accurate count of DGU's and The professional criminologists in the BJS don't…

I love video games (repost)

[This post was originally published at webeasties.wordpress.com] I've played video games most of my life. Starting with Tom Sawyer's Island and Matterhorn Screamer (both released in 1988), the early Final Fantasies and Secret of Mana  on Super Nintendo in middleschool, games like Starcraft and Half-life (Counter-Strike, Day of Defeat etc) in high school, and Halo in college. Grad school finally ended my 3 year love affair with World of Warcraft. I've always played for fun, but two papers in last week's Nature show how video games can be put to even better use (both are behind pay-walls…

Why do we die?

I finally got around to finishing Greta Christina's Comforting Thoughts About Death That Have Nothing to Do with God. It's good! This book is the sort of thing atheism needs more of: an acknowledgment that the phenomena most important to human beings can be addressed effectively without imagining fantastic supernatural creatures. Atheists have this reputation of being nerds all wrapped up in abstract concepts and making arguments against the superstitious props that people claim to find useful in day-to-day life, and it's good that some of us make the effort to show that no, we do deal with…

More on the M2 Channel Structure Controversy

Last year, I wrote about a scientific controversy over the structure of the influenza M2 proton channel, particularly over the protein's binding site for adamantane type anti-flu drugs. The Schnell/Chou model, based on solution NMR, had the drug binding to the outside of the channel, within the membrane (at a 4:1 drug:protein ratio). On the other hand, the Stouffer/DeGrado model had the drug binding inside the channel (1:1 ratio), based on X-ray crystallography studies. A new study was recently published in Nature (the same journal that published the original two competing papers), based this…

Election Special: is your MEP anti-science?

The European Elections are taking place this week, when millions of people will go to the polls to decide how they are represented in Europe. The European Parliament is a stage on which countless battles are played out, influencing aspects of our economy, law, judiciary, technology, environment, trade, culture, immigration, research, education, and many more. However, in the lead up to the elections, European politics have been eclipsed by the furore over our own MPs' expenses. Those who with an appetite for political debate over Europe have been forced to subsist on the amuse-bouches of…

Philosopher Generalizes Beyond Experience

Janet pointed me to a post at the Philosopher's Playground about doing away with laboratory courses in the science curriculum. Steve Gimbel, the philosopher doing the playing, teaches at Gettysburg College. He argues that the lab portions of science classes cause non-science majors to avoid those courses and not enroll in any science class not required for graduation. If science courses consisted of more theory and less labs (by theory he means lecture, and, by choosing that word, he indicates he doesn't have much experience in non-physics science courses where the lectures consist of more…

Copyright is Censorship

Provocative title, eh? I expect many people to instinctively react as angrily to this as I do to the empty clause "intellectual property is property". However, the clause "copyright is censorship" is actually true. What is copyright? It is a law passed by and enforced by governments that places restrictions on what you can say in public or what you can publish. It is a limitation on the freedom of expression. In what way is that not censorship? (I intend that as a rhetorical question. However, if you want to answer it, please try to come up with something better than "copyright is good,…

Musings on worms turning

So I'm turning over the California/NPG situation in my head, because I—okay, because I'm obsessive, are you happy now? (Just don't ask how late I was sending email last night.) The very cynical portion of my brain notes that it's almost certainly easier to persuade faculty to inaction than action. California didn't try to use this crisis to convince faculty to self-archive; that's work, that is, and the tie between self-archiving and dealing with NPG's extortionate tactics is weakly evident at best. California merely told faculty "don't work for NPG." Less work! Cheers! they appear to have…

HPV vaccinination---this is real, people

First let me remind you that I've written extensively about HPV infection, cervical cancer, and Gardasil, the vaccine to prevent these. The links are at the bottom of the post for your reference. OK, here's the deal. A bloggy friend of mine is dealing with some serious health concerns due to HPV infection. I've written lots of pieces about the more intimate side of medicine, but no one can tell it like a patient. How someone deals with disease is a personal matter, and she has decided to "come out" and share her story in order to help others. (Digression: a great book called Everything…

Swine flu, altmed inanity, HuffPo, and other randomness

We have a lot to cover today, but first things first: the Big Question. If you'll cast your memory way back (thanks, Van) you'll remember that a good question to ask altmed followers is the one of abandonment: what would it take for them to abandon a modality? Well, the answers are in, and the one's who answered just didn't get it. For example: [T]he question was: "Can you please give specific examples of alternative medicine theories and modalities that have been abandoned because they have been found to be ineffective?" The short and honest answer to this is no-- I cant. But my reason…

Gullible gunners, episode V

The London Daily Telegraph has been running a cynical and dishonest campaign in the UK to give people the right to defend themselves against burglars. It's dishonest because, as I have detailed here and here, people in the UK already have the right to defend themselves against burglars or anyone else who threatens them. The Daily Telegraph's campaign is nothing more than a beat up to create an issue to attack the government with. The truly disgraceful thing about their scare campaign is that it could convince people that self-defence is unlawful and frighten them…

DIY Neuro-Motor Experiments, Part 2

One thing I want to dispel immediately is that this is about normal "handedness". Sure, you can pick up a ball and throw it with your non-dominant hand/arm and experience the sensation of a "chicken-arm", but that's not the point under investigation. No, this has more to do with skills that are shared unevenly across the body (or even directionally on a side). Consequently, the attempt at a mirror image action produces sub-par performance in both the dominant and non-dominant sides. Secondly, we expect that repetition of an action will lead to better performance of that action, so repeated…

Martin Gaskell was not expelled

Gaskell is an astronomer who applied for a job at the University of Kentucky, and didn't get it. This is not news. The great majority of the people who apply for jobs in the sciences don't get them, even if they are well qualified — the rejected candidates know just to pick up and move on to the next application, because it is so routine. Not Martin Gaskell, though. Gaskell is suing the university for not hiring him, which is amazing: when I was on the job market, I sent out at least one hundred applications, and ultimately got hired for one, so I guess that means I missed 99 potentially…

Eurasian Pleistocene Extinctions & Ecological "Overkill"

The skeleton of an Irish Elk (Megaloceros giganteus) at the AMNH. Discussions of mass extinctions nearly always give rise to heated debates as to the mechanism(s) behind the disappearance of so many taxa in a short amount of time, and one of the most active debates still surrounds the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna. All over the world the extinction of large animals appears to be correlated with the movements of our own species, Homo sapiens, into new territories. Disease and climate change have their own parts to play, the "Overkill Hypothesis" is perhaps the most popular explanation…

Someone call the wahmbulance: new Expelled trailer

By now I'm sure you've all heard about Ben Stein's upcoming Christian Crusade against us Devilutionists, Expelled, and as February approaches I'm sure we'll be seeing more hype about the films theatrical release. Indeed, just like movies like The Chronicles of Narnia, The Nativity Story, and the shallow Facing The Giants (I had no idea God cared so much about Friday night football) have been promoted to churches with special screenings, free clips, and other materials to get butts in the seats, I'm sure Expelled will try to create a Christian media blitz around the film, which shouldn't be…

Attention, perversely assertive women! You are abnormal!

Important clarification: CAH is a real and serious disease. There are no objections to pediatricians treating the physiological disorders in utero. However, lesbianism, traditionally masculine career choices, and disinterest in having children are not diseases…and the problem in this work is that the doctors involved clearly think they are, and are interested in using the drug dexamethasone to modify behavioral choices. That's the scary part. Ladies, are you independent, stubborn, or mildly aggressive in your social interactions? Are you perhaps less interested in having sex with men than…

What is Energy?

I think it is time for me to talk about energy. My ultimate goal is to give some insight into the many stories about perpetual motion. To do this, I will first talk about the fundamentals of energy. **What is Energy** I started thinking about this, and at first I realized that I did not have a good, short explanation of energy. The most commonly used definition in science text books is: *Energy: the ability to do work (or something dreadfully vague like this).* But what is work? It may be no surprise to find that many college level physics texts avoid defining energy. After some serious…

Psychopaths and Rational Morality

Here's a new interesting new paper on the emotional deficits of the psychopathic brain, via sarcastic_f: The understanding that other people's emotional states depend on the fulfilment of their intention is fundamentally important for responding adequately to others. Psychopathic patients show severe deficits in responding adequately to other people's emotion. The present study explored whether these impairments are associated with deficits in the ability to infer others' emotional states. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), identical cartoon stories, depicting a subject whose…

BS Syndrome

Over at Neurophilosphy, there's a wonderful post on "confabulatory hypermnesia," or severe false memory syndrome: In the journal Cortex, researchers describe the case of a patient with severe memory loss who has a tendency to invent detailed and perfectly plausible false memories (confabulations) in response to questions to which most people would answer "I don't know", such as the one above. They have named this unusual condition confabulatory hypermnesia, and believe that theirs is the first study to document it. For example, when asked about his brother's job, he told the researchers that…

What is religion?

PZ is unamused. I criticized his criticism of prayer vigils in the Gulf, and he responds: It's strange how the people who most advocate sympathy and rapprochement with religion are blind to what religious people really think. Here's another case where Josh Rosenau complains that I misunderstand what the faithful were trying to do with their prayers for the Gulfâ¦and then goes on to do exactly as I said the apologists should stop doing. He ignores the religious part of these prayer events. He says, as if it is refuting anything I say, that prayer reduces stress, has positive physiological…

I fought the woo, and the woo won? Or: Gotta have more woo in my medical school, revisited

Over the last couple of days, I've discussed "complementary and alternative medicine" (CAM) in terms of a meme upon which evolutionary forces are acting to select certain forms of woo over others in academia. Although, in my usual inimitable fashion, I probably carried the concept one step too far, in the end I concluded that the relationship between CAM and academic medical centers is probably best characterized as parasitic rather than symbiotic. After I finished that post, I started thinking (always a dangerous thing). Regular readers know that I've sometimes raised a bit of a ruckus by…

Linear Programming

In my last post on game theory, I said that you could find an optimal probabilistic grand strategy for any two-player, simultaneous move, zero-sum game. It's done through something called linear programming. But linear programming is useful for a whole lot more than just game theory. Linear programming is a general technique for solving a huge family of optimization problems. It's incredibly useful for scheduling, resource allocation, economic planning, financial portfolio management, and a ton of of other, similar things. The basic idea of it is that you have a linear function, called an…

Selective Data and Global Warming

One of the most common sleazy tricks used by various sorts of denialists comes back to statistics - invalid and deceptive sampling methods. In fact, the very first real post on the original version of this blog was a shredding of a paper by Mark and David Geier that did this. Proper statistical analysis relies on a kind of blindness. Many of the things that you look for, you need to look for in a way that doesn't rely on any a priori knowledge of the data. If you look at the data, and find what appears to be an interesting property of it, you have to be very careful to show that it's a real…

From Sets to Numbers: Climbing Up to the Rationals

When last we left off, I'd used set theory to show how to construct the natural numbers; and then from the natural numbers, I showed how to construct the integers. Now, we can take the next step in building up the full tower of numbers, showing how if we've got the natural numbers defined in sets, we can define the rational numbers using sets and our constructed integers. Before getting in to that, one question that generally strikes people around this level of construction is that we've got a big stack of constructions here. We've got basic sets, which aren't numbers. We've got special…

I See Demon Worshipers

"More vomit! Damn it, I need more vomit!" Actually, before I get to this post about people who believe in demonic possession, I have a very simple question. If you believe in demons, isn't that almost akin to worshiping them? After all, we do refer to believers as God-fearing people. Anyway, I've been meaning to post this description of the casting out of demons from Joe Bageant's Deer Hunting With Jesus (italics mine; "Brother Mike" refers to the author's brother): After the worship service, I approach Brother Mike about exorcism: "I gotta ask you, Brother Mike," I said, "do you cast…

Tips for NYC Tourists

As a daily commuter into NYC via Metro-North to Grand Central Terminal, followed by two subways to my office, I go through one of the busiest transit hubs anywhere twice a day. Since it's tourist season, I also get to see lots of silly things tourists do. And since I live here and love the city, I've got a few suggestions, both of things to not do, and things that you shouldn't miss. So, based on my observations, here are a few tips for NYC tourists this season. Don't come to Grand Central Terminal during rush hour. GCT is a really interesting building, and I understand why you'd want to…

Introduction to Block Ciphers

Where encryption starts getting really interesting, in my opinion, is block ciphers. Block ciphers are a general category of ciphers that are sort of a combination of substitution and transposition ciphers, and sort of something entirely different. They're really fascinating things, but they're pretty complicated. The basic core of block ciphers is encryption of blocks. A block is a fixed-length series of bits. The basic cipher is a pair of functions (E,E-1), where E (the encryption function) takes a block B and a key K, and generates a new block B'=E(K,B), which is the encrypted form of…